Kingdom of Jerusalem

Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem

The Kingdom of Jerusalem came into being with the Crusader capture of Jerusalem in 1099, the climax of the First Crusade. Godfrey of Bouillon, one of the principal leaders of the Crusade, refused to take the title of King. According to tradition, he would not wear a crown of gold in the city where Christ had worn a crown of thorns. Instead, he adopted the title Advocate of the Holy Sepulchre (Advocatus Sancti Sepulchri).

Godfrey’s rule was short-lived. He died in 1100, only a year after the conquest of Jerusalem. His brother and successor, Baldwin of Boulogne, had fewer reservations about royal authority and was crowned Baldwin I, King of Jerusalem, at Bethlehem on Christmas Day 1100. With his accession, the new Crusader state acquired the form of a hereditary Latin Christian monarchy.

Baldwin I and the Expansion of the Kingdom

Baldwin I successfully expanded and consolidated the Kingdom. During his reign the Crusaders captured important Mediterranean ports, including Acre, Sidon and Beirut. Control of these coastal cities was essential because it opened secure maritime connections with Western Europe and made it possible for pilgrims, soldiers, supplies and merchants to reach the Crusader States by sea.

Baldwin also exercised influence over the other Crusader States established in the eastern Mediterranean: the County of Edessa, which he himself had previously ruled, the Principality of Antioch and the County of Tripoli. Together with the Kingdom of Jerusalem, these territories formed what became known collectively as the Crusader States or Outremer.

A Latin Kingdom in the East

The early twelfth century also saw an increase in the Latin Christian population. The Crusade of 1101 brought new contingents from Europe, while the establishment of a Latin ecclesiastical hierarchy, headed by the Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem, strengthened the religious and political institutions of the new kingdom.

The Italian maritime republics of Venice, Pisa and Genoa also became increasingly important. Their fleets assisted the Crusaders in capturing and maintaining the Mediterranean ports. In return, the Italian merchants received extensive commercial privileges and their own largely autonomous trading quarters within several coastal cities. These connections helped integrate the Kingdom of Jerusalem into the expanding commercial networks of the Mediterranean world.

Baldwin II and Further Expansion

Baldwin I died without direct heirs in 1118 and was succeeded by his relative Baldwin of Le Bourg, Count of Edessa, who became Baldwin II of Jerusalem. He proved to be another capable ruler. Although he was captured and imprisoned by Muslim forces during his reign, the Crusader States survived these setbacks and the territory under Latin Christian control continued to be consolidated.

One of the most important achievements of his reign was the capture of Tyre in 1124. With Tyre in Crusader hands, almost the entire strategically important coastline of the Kingdom of Jerusalem was controlled by the Latin rulers. Within only a quarter of a century after the capture of Jerusalem, the Crusaders had thus transformed their precarious foothold in the Holy Land into one of the principal political powers of the eastern Mediterranean.

Life in the Kingdom

As new generations grew up in the Kingdom of Jerusalem, many of the descendants of the original Crusaders increasingly regarded the eastern Mediterranean as their home rather than seeing themselves simply as immigrants from Western Europe. They lived in close contact with Greeks, Armenians, Syrians and other communities of the region, and some learned Greek, Arabic and other eastern languages. Intermarriage with local Christian communities also occurred. The resulting society remained distinctly Latin Christian, but inevitably absorbed elements of the cultures among which it had established itself.

The political organization of the kingdom was based broadly upon the feudal institutions of contemporary Western Europe, although local circumstances produced important differences. The kingdom occupied a relatively small territory and much of its wealth was concentrated in cities and trade rather than in extensive agricultural estates. Although the nobility possessed rural lands and estates, many nobles preferred to reside in Jerusalem, Acre or the other important towns.

A Diverse Society

As in Western Europe, nobles had vassals and were themselves vassals of the king. In the countryside, however, existing patterns of landholding and agricultural administration were often retained or adapted rather than completely replaced. Muslim and Eastern Christian rural communities continued to cultivate the land, generally under local leaders who acted as intermediaries between the inhabitants and the Latin landowners.

Relations between the different religious communities varied according to time and place. Muslims and Jews faced important restrictions under Crusader rule, particularly in Jerusalem, while Eastern Christians occupied a different position within the Latin kingdom. In many rural districts, however, existing communities continued much of their traditional way of life. Because the Latin population was relatively small, the Crusader rulers depended heavily upon the much larger indigenous population for agricultural production and economic activity.

Trade Between East and West

The strongly urban character of the kingdom, combined with the presence of merchants from Venice, Genoa, Pisa and other Mediterranean trading centres, encouraged the development of an economy in which commerce played an exceptionally important role. Palestine had for centuries been a crossroads between the Mediterranean world and the interior of Asia, and under the Crusaders these commercial connections increasingly extended towards Western Europe.

European textiles and other manufactured goods travelled eastwards, while spices, silk, precious materials and other products from Asia and the eastern Mediterranean were transported westwards. The Italian maritime republics profited enormously from this trade and established privileged commercial quarters in several Crusader ports. These expanding Mediterranean trading networks would later contribute to the economic development of the Italian city-states.

The Haute Cour

Because many leading nobles lived in or near Jerusalem rather than permanently on distant rural estates, they were able to exercise considerable influence over the monarchy. They participated in the Haute Cour, or High Court, the most important political and judicial assembly of the kingdom. It consisted principally of the king’s leading vassals and played an important role in questions of succession, feudal law, taxation and military obligations.

The relationship between king and nobility therefore differed in some respects from that found in the larger kingdoms of Western Europe. The king was an important figure, but his authority depended upon cooperation with the great barons and other powerful institutions of the realm.

The Military Orders

The chronic shortage of military manpower was partly compensated for by the emergence of the great military religious orders. The Knights Hospitaller and the Knights Templar became particularly important during the twelfth century. Originally founded for different purposes, both developed into powerful military institutions responsible for defending strategically important areas, castles and pilgrimage routes.

The military orders accumulated extensive estates and constructed or occupied formidable castles throughout the Crusader States. Although they cooperated with the kings of Jerusalem and participated in virtually every major military campaign, they possessed considerable independence and ultimately answered to the papacy rather than directly to the king. Their wealth, organization and permanent military presence made them indispensable to the defence of the kingdom.

Two particularly valuable contemporary perspectives on life in the Crusader States are provided by William of Tyre, writing from the Latin Christian world, and Usama ibn Munqidh, whose writings provide a Muslim Syrian perspective on encounters between Franks and the peoples of the region.

The Kingdom in the Mid-Twelfth Century

Baldwin II was succeeded in 1131 by his daughter Melisende, who ruled together with her husband, Fulk of Anjou. During her reign Jerusalem experienced an important period of economic, religious and artistic development. One of the most remarkable surviving products associated with her court is the richly illuminated Melisende Psalter, produced in Jerusalem during the twelfth century and reflecting the remarkable mixture of Western, Byzantine and eastern artistic traditions found in the Crusader kingdom.

Fulk, an experienced military commander, faced an increasingly dangerous opponent in Zengi, ruler of Mosul and Aleppo. Fulk died following a hunting accident in 1143, and the following year Zengi captured Edessa. The loss of the County of Edessa, the first of the Crusader States established during the First Crusade, caused alarm throughout Western Christendom and became the immediate stimulus for the Second Crusade.

The Second Crusade

The Second Crusade brought the armies of King Louis VII of France and King Conrad III of Germany to the Holy Land. In 1148 the Crusader leaders decided to attack Damascus. The decision proved disastrous. Damascus had at times been an important counterweight to the growing power of the rulers of Aleppo, and the attack ended after only a few days in humiliating failure.

Melisende continued to exercise considerable political authority until conflict developed with her son Baldwin III. In 1152 Baldwin asserted control over the kingdom, although mother and son were subsequently reconciled and Melisende remained an influential figure until her death in 1161. Baldwin III captured Ascalon from the Fatimids in 1153, removing the last major Egyptian stronghold on the Palestinian coast. At the same time, however, the strategic position of the Crusader States deteriorated as Nur ad-Din brought Damascus under his control and increasingly unified Muslim Syria.

Amalric I and the Struggle for Egypt

Baldwin III died in 1163 and was succeeded by his brother Amalric I. Much of Amalric’s reign was dominated by attempts to gain control over Egypt, where political instability appeared to offer the Crusaders an opportunity for expansion. Supported at times by the Byzantine emperor Manuel I Komnenos, Amalric launched several campaigns but ultimately failed to establish lasting control.

The struggle for Egypt eventually favoured Saladin, who became ruler of Egypt and, following the death of Nur ad-Din in 1174, gradually brought much of Muslim Syria under his authority as well. For the first time since the establishment of the Crusader States, Jerusalem faced a powerful opponent capable of combining the resources of Egypt and Syria.

Baldwin IV — The Leper King

Amalric was succeeded in 1174 by his young son Baldwin IV, who suffered from leprosy. Despite his illness, Baldwin proved a determined ruler and military leader. His reign nevertheless became increasingly dominated by the problem of succession and by rivalry among powerful factions at court. Among the leading figures were Raymond III of Tripoli and Guy of Lusignan, who had married Baldwin’s sister Sibylla.

Baldwin IV died in 1185. His young nephew Baldwin V succeeded him but survived for only about a year. Sibylla then became queen and crowned her husband Guy of Lusignan as king. The kingdom was now politically divided at precisely the moment when Saladin’s power had reached its height.

Hattin and the Fall of Jerusalem

Tensions finally erupted into full-scale war in 1187. Raynald of Châtillon, lord of Oultrejordain and the fortress of Kerak, had repeatedly attacked Muslim caravans and violated truces with Saladin. In July 1187 the main Crusader army marched towards Tiberias and was surrounded by Saladin’s forces near the Horns of Hattin. Exhausted by heat and lack of water, the Crusader army was almost completely destroyed.

The Battle of Hattin was one of the decisive events in the history of the Crusader States. With the field army destroyed, Saladin rapidly captured most of the kingdom. Jerusalem surrendered on 2 October 1187. One important stronghold remained in Latin hands: the port of Tyre, successfully defended by Conrad of Montferrat.

The Third Crusade and Recovery of the Coast

The loss of Jerusalem shocked Western Europe and led to the Third Crusade. Among its leaders were Richard I of England — Richard the Lionheart — Philip II of France and Emperor Frederick Barbarossa. Acre was recovered in 1191, and Richard subsequently defeated Saladin at the Battle of Arsuf. Despite his military successes, however, Richard was unable to recover Jerusalem.

In 1192 Richard and Saladin concluded the Treaty of Jaffa. The Crusaders retained control of an important strip of Mediterranean coastline, while Jerusalem remained under Muslim rule. Christian pilgrims were nevertheless permitted access to the holy city. The Kingdom of Jerusalem had survived, but it was now fundamentally different: its political centre shifted from Jerusalem to the coastal city of Acre.

A Kingdom Without Jerusalem

For approximately another century, the Kingdom of Jerusalem survived as a much smaller state concentrated along the Mediterranean coast. Acre became its effective capital, while Tyre, Beirut and several other coastal territories remained important centres. The title King of Jerusalem survived even though Jerusalem itself was usually outside Latin control.

The Fourth Crusade, intended ultimately to strengthen the Christian position in the East, never reached the Holy Land. Instead, the Crusaders captured and sacked Constantinople in 1204. Subsequent expeditions attempted to regain Jerusalem indirectly through attacks upon Egypt, which was correctly regarded as a principal source of Muslim power in the region. The Fifth Crusade captured Damietta in Egypt in 1219 but ultimately ended in failure.

Jerusalem Regained — Without a Battle

In one of the most extraordinary episodes of the Crusades, Emperor Frederick II succeeded in recovering Jerusalem through diplomacy rather than military conquest. By the Treaty of Jaffa concluded with the Ayyubid sultan al-Kamil in 1229, Jerusalem, Bethlehem and other territories were returned to Christian control under carefully negotiated conditions.

The achievement was short-lived. The territory surrounding Jerusalem was insufficient for effective defence, and in 1244 Khwarazmian forces captured and devastated the city. Jerusalem would never again become the effective capital of the medieval Crusader kingdom.

The Mamluks and the Final Decline

During the second half of the thirteenth century, the strategic situation became increasingly desperate. The Mamluks emerged as the dominant power in Egypt and Syria and systematically attacked the remaining Crusader strongholds. At the same time, the Latin states suffered from internal disputes over succession and from rivalry among the military orders, Italian trading communities and competing noble families.

For a time some Crusaders hoped that an alliance with the Mongols might reverse their fortunes. Mongol armies invaded Syria, but their advance was checked by the Mamluks at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260. Thereafter the Mamluk sultans steadily reduced the remaining Latin territories. Antioch fell in 1268 and the County of Tripoli in 1289.

The Fall of Acre — 1291

The final great Crusader stronghold was Acre. In the spring of 1291, the Mamluk sultan al-Ashraf Khalil brought a large army against the city. The siege began in April and, despite fierce resistance, Acre fell on 18 May 1291. The remaining important Latin positions on the mainland were abandoned or captured soon afterwards.

The fall of Acre marked the effective end of the Kingdom of Jerusalem as a territorial state in the Holy Land. Many surviving Crusader families and institutions withdrew to Cyprus, which became an important centre for continued plans — ultimately unsuccessful — to recover the lost territories.

Kings of Jerusalem After the Kingdom

The disappearance of the territorial kingdom did not mean the disappearance of its royal title. Competing dynastic claims had already complicated the succession during the thirteenth century, and after 1291 the title King of Jerusalem continued to be claimed and inherited by several European royal houses. Long after the Crusader kingdom itself had disappeared, the title remained part of European dynastic tradition and royal titulature.

The Arms of the Kingdom of Jerusalem

The Coat of Arms of the Kingdom of Jerusalem is among the most famous achievements of medieval heraldry. It consists of a large golden cross potent surrounded by four smaller golden crosses on a silver or white field. The five crosses are commonly known collectively as the Jerusalem Cross.

The arms are particularly remarkable because they appear to violate one of the fundamental conventions of heraldry: the rule of tincture. According to this principle, a metal — gold (or) or silver (argent) — should normally not be placed upon another metal, just as one colour should normally not be placed directly upon another colour. The golden crosses of Jerusalem upon a silver field therefore constitute the most celebrated exception to this rule.

The Jerusalem Cross subsequently acquired several symbolic interpretations. The large central cross has been associated with Christ, while the four smaller crosses have been interpreted as representing the Four Evangelists or the spreading of Christianity towards the four corners of the world. Whatever its precise original meaning, it became one of the most recognizable symbols associated with the Crusades and the medieval Kingdom of Jerusalem.

Source

This page is based on material originally published in the Wikipedia article “Kingdom of Jerusalem”. The text has been edited, corrected and reorganized for this website. For the licensing conditions of the original material, see the applicable Wikipedia licence.